excerpt from cdpatton essay:
Saṃskāra as a Member of Dependent Origination in Non-Theravādin Sources
Essays
Dec 8
12h
cdpatton
5d
This essay is essentially for information purposes.
There is a lack of awareness of Buddhist teachings outside of the Theravāda tradition given that most people interested in EBT studies are either Theravāda practitioners or scholars who deal mainly with Pali language texts and perhaps some Sanskrit.
There is, however, a huge cross section of Buddhist materials preserved in Chinese translation that reveals what the rest of the Buddhist world thought about various subjects.
This essay is about one particular, narrow subject:
How saṃskāra (P.
saṅkhāra) was understood in the context of dependent origination outside of Theravāda sources.
The sheer volume and diversity of Buddhist texts that are extant in Chinese makes it impossible for me to be comprehensive in this essay, however.
Below, I offer passages from three sources the demonstrate the wide range of meanings that saṃskāra was understood to include in the context of dependent origination.
Sūtra Sources
I will begin with a passage from the Ascertainment of Meanings Sūtra (artha-viniścaya-sūtra (T762-3). This text was translated to Chinese twice during the 10-11th c.
CE. So, it is quite late in Buddhist history, but it’s one of the few sūtra sources that offer us some interpretation what physical, verbal, and mental saṃskāra meant.
There is also a Sanskrit edition of this text that was translated by Anandajoti - it matches T762 better than it does T763.
The interpretations in T762 and T763 are different, so they must represent two different recensions of the same text, perhaps from different schools of Buddhism.
T762 reads:
行法者，行有三種。
謂：
身行、語行、意行。
身行者，謂：
出入息依止於身、繫屬於身，由依身故，而出入息，得名身行。
語行者，謂：
論難分別，即此分別論難言辭，故名語行。
意行者，謂：
貪、瞋、癡心所法等，依止於心、繫屬於心。
由依心故，得名意行。
「復有三行。
何等為三？
謂：
福行、罪行、不動行。
是名三行。
[T762.17.651a14-20]
"The item of action.
Action has three kinds, which are physical action, verbal action, and mental action.
Physical action refers to breathing in and out because of the basis of breathing in the body, connection to the body, and being derived from the body.
This gets the name ‘physical action.’
Verbal action refers to analyzing problems in the treatises.
This analysis of problems is then verbalized, so it’s called ‘verbal action.’
Mental action refers to mental factors such as greed, dislike, and delusion, which are based in the mind, connected to the mind, and derived from the mind.
So, it’s called ‘mental action.’
“Again, there are three actions.
What are the three?
Meritorious action, sinful action, and imperturbable action.
This is called the three actions.”
The parallel passage in T763 is not as easy to understand:
「云何無明緣行？」
佛言：
「所謂身行、語行、意行。
是名無明緣行。」
「云何身行？」
「動轉所作，身為濟渡，任持諸法，為依止處。
是名身行。」
「云何語行？」
「能詮能顯，分別校量，諸法實性。
是名語行。」
「云何意行？」
「心所愛樂、心所思惟、心所攝受、心所依止。
是名意行。」
[T763.17.654b26-c2]
“What is action that’s conditioned by ignorance?”
The Buddha said:
“It refers to physical action, verbal action, and mental action.
This is called the action that’s conditioned by ignorance.”
“What is physical action?”
“Movement performed by the body to render aid or preserve dharmas as a dependable place.
This is called ‘physical action.’
”
“What is verbal action?”
“Expounding, making plain, analyzing, comparing the realities of things is called ‘verbal action.’
”
“What is mental action?”
“The mind taking delight, thinking, collecting itself, and depending on something is called ‘mental action.’
”
In both cases, physical and verbal actions are in fact physical and verbal actions interpreted in a context of the religious life.
The Śāriputra Abhidharma
This was apparently a large part of the Abhidharma Piṭaka of the Dharmaguptaka school.
Outside of the Chinese translation of the Dīrgha Āgama and a Gandhari remnant of their version of the Saṅgītiparyāya, this Abhidharma compendium is the main source we have for Dharmaguptaka doctrinal teachings.
Chapter 5 of Part 2 is a lengthy commentary on the twelve-step chain of dependent origination.
The passage defining action conditioned by ignorance reads:
云何無明緣行。
無明緣福行非福行不動行。
How does ignorance condition action?
Ignorance conditions actions of merit, actions of demerit, and actions that are imperturbable.
云何非福行。
不善身行。
不善口行。
不善意行。
What are actions of demerit?
Unskillful physical actions, unskillful verbal actions, and unskillful mental actions.
云何不善身行。
若人無慧無明不斷。
行殺盜婬。
及餘不善身行。
是名不善身行。
What are unskillful physical actions?
If a person doesn’t end their lack of wisdom and ignorance, they commit acts of killing, stealing, sexual intercourse, and other unskillful physical actions.
This is called unskillful physical action.
云何不善口行。
若人無慧無明未斷。
行妄語兩舌惡口綺語。
及餘不善口行。
是名不善口行。
What are unskillful verbal actions?
If a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance speaks falsely, duplicitously, harshly, idly, or do any other unskillful verbal actions, these are called unskillful verbal actions.
云何不善意行。
若人無慧無明未斷。
起貪欲瞋恚邪見。
是名不善意行。
What are unskillful mental actions?
If a person has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance, they produce greed, hate, and wrong views.
These are called unskillful mental actions.
此身口意不善行。
名非福行無明緣現世行。
These physically, verbally, and mentally unskillful actions are called actions of demerit and ignorance conditioning actions in the present world.
云何福行。
身善行口善行意善行。
What are actions of merit?
Physically skillful actions, verbally skillful actions, and mentally skillful actions.
云何身善行。
若人無慧無明未斷。
不殺盜婬。
及餘身善行。
是名身善行。
What are physically skillful actions?
If a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance doesn’t kill, steal, engage in sex, and does other physically skillful actions, these are called physically skillful actions.
云何口善行。
若人無慧無明未斷。
不妄語兩舌惡口綺語。
及餘口善行。
是名口善行。
What are verbally skillful actions?
If a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance doesn’t speak falsely, duplicitously, harshly, or idly, or does other verbally skillful actions, this is called verbally skillful actions.
云何意善行。
若人無慧無明未斷。
無貪無恚正見。
是名意善行。
What are mentally skillful actions?
If a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance has no greed, no hate, and right view, these are called mentally skillful actions.
此身口意善行。
是名福行無明緣現世行。
These physically, verbally, and mentally skillful actions are called actions of merit and ignorance conditioning actions in the present world.
復次若人無慧無明未斷。
離欲惡不善法。
有覺有觀離生喜樂。
成就初禪行。
彼身業無教戒法入攝意識所知。
口業無教戒法入攝意識所知。
意業由意生受想思觸思惟。
如是身口意善行。
是名福行無明緣現世行。
Furthermore, suppose a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance parts with desire and what’s bad and unskillful.
With perception and investigation, that seclusion produces joy and happiness, and they accomplish the practice of the first dhyāna.
That physical deed is something unintentional and ethical and enters the knowing of a collected mental awareness.
That verbal deed is something unintentional and ethical and enters the knowing of a collected mental awareness.
That mental deed is something that produces feelings, conceptions, intentions, contacts, and considerations from one’s mind.
In this way, physically, verbally, and mentally skillful actions are called actions of merit and ignorance conditioning actions of the present world.
I will stop here for the time being, but we can see that, again, physical, verbal, and mental saṃskāra were interpreted as actual physical, verbal, and mental actions.
The analysis continues with a series of cases like these covering present and future saṃskāra that are conditioned by ignorance.
Imperturbable actions were interpreted as the attainments of formless samādhi.
When action that conditions awareness is discussed, we see the interpretation of saṃskāra change from literal actions to intentions, but as a category it also includes the functions of the senses and past actions that lead to the awareness of different realms of rebirth:
云何行緣識。
有緣共欲思生共欲識。
如是緣現在行生現在識。
名行緣現在識。
How does action condition awareness?
There are conditions common to intentions of desire that give rise to awareness of desire.
Such conditions of present action give rise to present awareness.
This is called action conditioning present awareness.
有共瞋恚⋯有共愚癡⋯無共欲⋯無共瞋恚⋯無共愚癡⋯善⋯不善⋯
There are [conditions] common to dislike … common to foolishness … Nothing in common with desire … nothing in common with dislike … nothing in common with foolishness … skillfulness … unskillfulness …
有緣無記思。
有生無記識。
如是緣現在行生現在識。
是名行緣現在識
There are conditions of neutral intention that give rise to neutral awareness.
In this way, conditions of present actions give rise to present awareness.
This is called action conditioning present awareness.
緣眼緣色生識。
彼眼行色行若緣識。
如是緣現在行生現在識。
是為現在行緣現在識。
The condition of the eye and condition of forms give rise to awareness.
If those actions of eye and forms condition awareness, such conditions are present actions giving rise to present awareness.
This is present action conditioning present awareness.
耳鼻舌身緣意緣法生識。
彼意行法行若緣識。
如是緣現在行生現在識。
是名現在行緣現在識。
… ear … nose … tongue … body … condition of the mind and condition of ideas give rise to awareness.
If those actions of mind and ideas condition awareness, such conditions are present actions giving rise to present awareness.
This is called present action conditioning present awareness.
復次若人無慧無明未斷。
起不善身行⋯不善口行⋯不善意行。
作不善行已。
身壞命終。
墮地獄畜生餓鬼。
以因緒緣故生地獄畜生餓鬼初識。
以業因緒集緣。
生眼識⋯乃至⋯意識及後了識。
如是緣現在行生未來識。
是為行緣未來識。
Furthermore, suppose a person who has yet to end their lack of wisdom and ignorance produces unskillful physical actions … unskillful verbal actions … unskillful mental actions.
Having done those unskillful actions, they will fall to hell or among animals or hungry ghosts when their body breaks up and their life ends.
Because of these circumstances, their first awareness of being in Hell, an animal, or a hungry ghost arises.
The cause of action and the circumstances of formation give rise to visual awareness … mental awareness and later cognitions.
In this way, the condition of present action give rise to future awareness.
This is action conditioning future awareness.
There are many permutations of this last case covering various rebirth circumstances.
I will stop here to save time and space.
The Abhidharma Dharmaskandha
The Dharmaskandha (lit.
“Collection of Teachings”) is a Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma text that covers a set of essential Dharma topics.
While the topics it covers are very similar to those found in the Theravāda Abhidhamma Vibhaṅga, the format is that of sūtra commentary.
Each chapter opens with the quotation of a short sūtra from a version of the Ekottarika or Saṃyukta Āgama.
The text then presents an explanation of the topic, which can reach the level of detail of a word-for-word commentary.
The twelve-step chain of dependent origination is covered in Chapter 21 of Xuanzang’s Chinese translation of the Dharmaskandha.
There is also a Sanskrit fragment of the same material extant that preserves most of the chapter.
The passage on saṃskāra being conditioned by ignorance reads:
云何無明緣行？
謂世尊說：
「苾芻當知，無明為因、無明為緣故，貪瞋癡起。
此貪瞋癡性。」
是名無明緣行。
How does ignorance condition action?
The Bhagavān said:
“Monks, you should know, greed, dislike, and delusion arise because of the cause of ignorance and the condition of ignorance.
This is the nature of greed, dislike, and delusion.”
This is called ignorance conditioning action.
復次如世尊說：
「苾芻當知，無明為前行、無明為幖幟故，起無量種惡不善法，謂無慚無愧等。
由無慚無愧故起諸邪見，由邪見故起邪思惟，由邪思惟故起邪語，由邪語故起邪業，由邪業故起邪命，由邪命故起邪勤，由邪勤故起邪念，由邪念故起邪定。」
此邪見、邪思惟、邪語、邪業、邪命、邪勤、邪念、邪定，是名無明緣行。
Furthermore, the Bhagavān said, “Monks, you should know, ignorance gives rise to measureless kinds of bad and unskillful things such as the lack of shame and conscience because it is their forerunner and their banner.
Wrong views arise because of the lack of shame and conscience.
Wrong thinking arises because of wrong views.
Wrong speech arises because of wrong thinking.
Wrong actions arise because of wrong speech.
Wrong livelihoods arise because of wrong actions.
Wrong endeavors arise because of wrong livelihoods.
Wrong mindfulness arises from wrong endeavors.
Wrong samādhi arises from wrong mindfulness.”
Wrong views, wrong thinking, wrong speech, wrong deeds, wrong livelihoods, wrong endeavors, wrong mindfulness, and wrong samādhi are called ignorance conditioning action.
復次如世尊說：
「苾芻當知，起無量種惡不善法，一切皆以無明為根、無明為集、是無明類、從無明生。
墮無明趣者不如實知善不善法、有罪無罪法、應脩不應脩法、下劣勝妙法、黑白法、有敵對法、緣生諸法。
不如實知此諸法故，便起邪見邪思惟乃至邪念邪定。」
是名無明緣行。
Furthermore, the Bhagavān said, “Monks, you should know, all the measureless kinds of bad and unskillful things that arise have ignorance as their root, ignorance as their formation, are kinds of ignorance, and arise from ignorance.
Someone who falls to an ignorant destiny doesn’t truly know what’s skillful or unskillful, what’s blameworthy and what’s not, what should be practiced and what shouldn’t, what’s inferior or superior, what’s black or white, what has an opposite, or the things that dependently arise.
Because they don’t truly know these things, wrong view, wrong thinking … up to … wrong mindfulness, and wrong samādhi arise.”
This is called ignorance conditioning action.
復次《瓮喻經》中佛作是說：
無明為緣，造福、非福及不動行。
Furthermore, the Buddha stated in the Clay Jar Parable Sūtra:
“Ignorance is the condition for the creation of merit, demerit, and imperturbable actions.”
云何福行？
謂有漏善身業語業、心心所法、不相應行。
如是諸行，長夜能招可愛可樂可欣可意諸異熟果，此果名福亦名福果。
以是福業異熟果故，是名福行。
What are meritorious actions?
They are skillful physical and verbal deeds that are contaminated and actions that aren’t associated with mind or mental objects.
Such actions for the long night bring lovely, enjoyable, delightful, and agreeable maturing fruits.
These fruits are called merits and called meritorious fruits.
This is called meritorious action because of these meritorious deeds and their matured fruits.
云何非福行？
謂諸不善身業語業、心心所法、不相應行。
如是諸行，長夜能招不可愛不可樂不可欣不可意諸異熟果，此果名非福，亦名非福果。
是非福業異熟果故，是名非福行。
What are demeritorious actions?
They are unskillful physical and verbal deeds that are contaminated and actions that aren’t associated with mind or mental objects.
Such actions for the long night bring unlovely, not enjoyable, not delightful, and disagreeable maturing fruits.
These fruits are called demerits and called demeritorious fruits.
This is called demeritorious action because of these demeritorious deeds and their matured fruits.
云何不動行？
謂四無色定。
諸有漏善，是名不動行。
What are imperturbable actions?
They are the four formless samādhis, which are contaminated and skillful.
This is called imperturbable action.
云何無明為緣造非福行？
謂有一類，由貪瞋癡纏縛心故，造身語意三種惡行。
此三惡行名非福行。
由此因緣，身壞命終墮於地獄，於彼復造非福行等，是名無明為緣造非福行。
如說地獄，傍生、鬼界應知亦爾。
How does ignorance condition the commission of demeritorious action?
There is a type [of person] that commits physical, verbal, and mental bad actions because of thoughts bound up by greed, dislike, and delusion.
These three bad actions are called demeritorious action.
As a result of these circumstances, a person falls to Hell when their body breaks up and their life ends.
They continue committing demeritorious actions there.
This is called ignorance conditioning the commission of demeritorious action.
The realms of animals and ghosts should be understood in the same way as was said about Hell.
云何無明為緣造福行？
謂有一類，於人趣樂繫心悕求，彼作是念：
「願我當生人趣同分，與諸人眾同受快樂。」
因此悕求，造能感人趣身語意妙行。
此三妙行名為福行。
由此因緣，身壞命終生於人趣，與諸人眾同受快樂。
於彼復造諸福行等，是名無明為緣造福行。
How does ignorance condition the commission of meritorious action?
There is a type who enjoys tying their thoughts to the aspiration for the human destiny.
They have this thought:
“I hope I will be born human with the same lot and enjoy the same pleasures as human communities do.”
As a result of this aspiration, he does superb physical, verbal, and mental actions that bring about the human destiny.
These three superb actions are called meritorious action.
As a result of these circumstances, they are born in the human destiny when their body breaks up and their life ends, and they enjoy the same pleasures as those human communities.
They continue committing these meritorious actions.
This is called ignorance conditioning the commission of meritorious action.
有不繫心悕求人樂，但由無明蔽動心故，造身語意三種妙行。
此三妙行名為福行。
由此因緣，身壞命終生於人趣⋯於彼復造諸福行等。
是名無明為緣造福行。
Some don’t tie their thoughts to the aspiration for human pleasures.
They commit the superb physical, verbal, and mental actions simply because ignorance shrouds and motivates their thoughts.
These three superb actions are called meritorious action.
As a result of these circumstances, they are born in the human destiny when their body breaks up and their life ends, [and they enjoy the same pleasures as those human communities.
] They continue committing these meritorious actions.
This is called ignorance conditioning the commission of meritorious action.
As before, these cases detailing the ways in which actions lead to different types of rebirth continue.
When the commentary turns to saṃskāra conditioning awareness, we read:
云何行緣識？
謂有一類，貪瞋癡俱生思為緣故，起貪瞋癡俱生諸識，是名行緣識。
What is awareness conditioned by action?
There is a type who gives rise to awareness together with greed, dislike, and delusion because of being conditioned by intentions produced together with greed, dislike, and delusion.
This is called awareness conditioned by action.
復有一類，無貪無瞋無癡俱生思為緣故，起無貪無瞋無癡俱生諸識，是名行緣識。
Again, there is a type who gives rise to awareness together with no greed, no dislike, and no delusion because of being conditioned by intentions produced together without greed, dislike, or delusion.
This is called awareness conditioned by action.
復次眼及色為緣生眼識，此中眼是內有為行，色為外緣生眼識，是名行緣識。
乃至意及法為緣生意識，此中意是內有為行，法為外緣生意識，是名行緣識。
Furthermore, visual awareness arises conditioned by the eye and forms.
Here, the eye is action that is internally existing, and forms are the external conditions that produce visual awareness.
This is called awareness conditioned by action.
… mental awareness arises conditioned by the mind and ideas.
Here, the mind is action that is internally existing, and ideas are the external conditions that produce mental awareness.
This is called awareness conditioned by action.
復次《瓮喻經》中佛作是說：
造福非福不動行已，有隨福非福不動識。
Furthermore, the Buddha stated in the Clay Jar Parable Sūtra:
“After committing meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable actions, there is a resulting meritorious, demeritorious, or imperturbable awareness.”
云何造非福行已有隨非福識？
謂有一類，由貪瞋癡纏縛心故，造身語意三種惡行。
此三惡行名非福行。
由此因緣，身壞命終墮於地獄，於彼起識，是名造非福行已有隨非福識。
如說地獄，傍生、鬼界應知亦爾。
How is there a resulting demeritorious awareness after committing demeritorious actions?
There is a type who commits physical, verbal, and mental bad actions because their mind is shrouded by greed, dislike, and delusion.
These three bad actions are called demeritorious action.
As a result of these circumstances, they fall to Hell when their body breaks up and their life ends, and awareness arises there.
This is called there being resulting demeritorious awareness after committing demeritorious actions.
As has been said about Hell, so it is with the world of animals and hungry ghosts.
And so forth for the other kinds of action.
As we can see, then, saṃskāra was considered the karmic actions that lead to specific kinds of rebirth, and the step of awareness being conditioned by saṃskāra was in fact the passing from one life to the next.
Thus, many commentaries on the twelve steps assign the first two to the past, the middle eight to the present life, and the last two to the future.
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